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Abstract In conditions of low winds and high insolation, near-surface stratification develops in the ocean that is typically referred to as a diurnal warm layer (DWL). These layers can have a substantial effect on sea surface temperature and air–sea fluxes yet are rarely accounted for in modern global models due to their small vertical scale. Here, we present collocated measurements of vertical temperature and turbulence structures in large DWLs made from a Lagrangian float featuring a robotic lead screw temperature/salinity (T/S) profiler and pulse-to-pulse coherent ADCP as well as a comprehensive suite of meteorological observations above the ocean surface, yielding novel observations of the response of large DWLs to variability in wind and solar forcing at subhourly time scales. Comparison between the observations and a hierarchy of upper-ocean models reveals the importance of an accurate solar heating parameterization and suggests a modification to the critical bulk Richardson number used by default in theK-profile parameterization. Comparison to a simple scaling for DWL evolution highlights its potential as a means of incorporating DWL effects into global-scale modeling, and a new extension to the scaling is developed to remedy its inaccuracy in cases of wind decrease. None of the models tested are able to reproduce the observed response to sudden insolation loss on one of the stations. Significance StatementThis study presents measurements of warm layers of water that can develop on the ocean surface on a calm, sunny day. These layers are widespread in the ocean and change the relationship between the ocean and the atmosphere, but they are hard to include in large models because they are so shallow. By comparing first-of-their-kind observations of these warm layers made by our drifting buoy with several types of physical models, we improve our understanding of them and chart a realistic path toward their inclusion in global models. 

Ocean surface radiation measurement best practices have been developed as a first step to support the interoperability of radiation measurements across multiple ocean platforms and between land and ocean networks. This document describes the consensus by a working group of radiation measurement experts from land, ocean, and aircraft communities. The scope was limited to broadband shortwave (solar) and longwave (terrestrial infrared) surface irradiance measurements for quantification of the surface radiation budget. Best practices for spectral measurements for biological purposes like photosynthetically active radiation and ocean color are only mentioned briefly to motivate future interactions between the physical surface flux and biological radiation measurement communities. Topics discussed in these best practices include instrument selection, handling of sensors and installation, data quality monitoring, data processing, and calibration. It is recognized that platform and resource limitations may prohibit incorporating all best practices into all measurements and that spatial coverage is also an important motivator for expanding current networks. Thus, one of the key recommendations is to perform interoperability experiments that can help quantify the uncertainty of different practices and lay the groundwork for a multi-tiered global network with a mix of high-accuracy reference stations and lower-cost platforms and practices that can fill in spatial gaps. 

Abstract Rainfall alters the physical and chemical properties of the surface ocean, and its effect on ocean skin temperature and surface heat fluxes is poorly represented in many air‐sea interaction models. We present radiometric observations of ocean skin temperature, near‐surface (5 cm) temperature from a towed thermistor, and bulk atmospheric and oceanic variables, for 69 rain events observed over the course of 4 months in the Indian Ocean as part of the DYNAMO project. We test a state‐of‐the‐art prognostic model developed by Bellenger et al. (2017,https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JC012429) to predict ocean skin temperature in the presence of rain, and demonstrate a physically motivated modification to the model that improves its performance with increasing rain rate. We characterize the vertical skin‐bulk temperature gradient induced by rain and find that it levels off at high rain rates, suggestive of a transition in skin‐layer physics that has been previously hypothesized in the literature. We also quantify the small bias that will be present in turbulent sensible heat fluxes parameterized from ocean temperature measurements made at typical “bulk” depths during a rain event. Finally, a wind threshold is observed above which the surface ocean remains well‐mixed during a rain event; however, the skin temperature is observed to decrease at all wind speeds in the presence of rain. 

Sophisticated measurements of fluid velocity near to an undulating air–water boundary have traditionally been confined to the laboratory setting. Developments in camera technology and the opening of novel modes of analysis have allowed for sensitive measurements of the current profile in the ocean’s uppermost layer. Taking advantage of the Research Platform R/P FLIP as a ‘laboratory at sea’, here we present first-of-their-kind thermal and polarimetric camera-based observations of wave orbital velocities and mean shear flows in the upper centimetres of the ocean surface layer. Measurements reveal a well-defined logarithmic layer as seen in laboratory measurements and described by classical surface layer theory; however, substantial spread of observations is found at low levels of wind forcing, where the Stokes drift of swell may have a substantial impact on the near-surface current profile. A novel application of short time window Fourier transforms allows for the estimation of near-surface wave orbital velocity magnitudes. These are found to be in general agreement with the prescriptions of linear wave theory, although observations diverge from theory at high levels of wind forcing where the interface is subject to surface wave breaking. Finally, the surface gravity wave phase-coherent short wave growth is presented and discussed in the context of hydrodynamic wave and airflow modulation. 

Abstract Upper-ocean turbulence is central to the exchanges of heat, momentum, and gasses across the air/sea interface, and therefore plays a large role in weather and climate. Current understanding of upper-ocean mixing is lacking, often leading models to misrepresent mixed-layer depths and sea surface temperature. In part, progress has been limited due to the difficulty of measuring turbulence from fixed moorings which can simultaneously measure surface fluxes and upper-ocean stratification over long time periods. Here we introduce a direct wavenumber method for measuring Turbulent Kinetic Energy (TKE) dissipation rates, ϵ , from long-enduring moorings using pulse-coherent ADCPs. We discuss optimal programming of the ADCPs, a robust mechanical design for use on a mooring to maximize data return, and data processing techniques including phase-ambiguity unwrapping, spectral analysis, and a correction for instrument response. The method was used in the Salinity Processes Upper-ocean Regional Study (SPURS) to collect two year-long data sets. We find the mooring-derived TKE dissipation rates compare favorably to estimates made nearby from a microstructure shear probe mounted to a glider during its two separate two-week missions for (10 −8 ) ≤ ϵ ≤ (10 −5 ) m 2 s −3 . Periods of disagreement between turbulence estimates from the two platforms coincide with differences in vertical temperature profiles, which may indicate that barrier layers can substantially modulate upper-ocean turbulence over horizontal scales of 1-10 km. We also find that dissipation estimates from two different moorings at 12.5 m, and at 7 m are in agreement with the surface buoyancy flux during periods of strong nighttime convection, consistent with classic boundary layer theory. 

Abstract Estimates of turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) dissipation rate (ε) are key in understanding how heat, gas, and other climate‐relevant properties are transferred across the air‐sea interface and mixed within the ocean. A relatively new method involving moored pulse‐coherent acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCPs) allows for estimates ofεwith concurrent surface flux and wave measurements across an extensive length of time and range of conditions. Here, we present 9 months of moored estimates ofεat a fixed depth of 8.4 m at the Stratus mooring site (20°S, 85°W). We find that turbulence regimes are quantified similarly using the Obukhov length scaleand the newer Langmuir stability length scale, suggesting that ocean‐side friction velocityimplicitly captures the influence of Langmuir turbulence at this site. This is illustrated by a strong correlation between surface Stokes driftandthat is likely facilitated by the steady Southeast trade winds regime. In certain regimes,, whereis the von Kármán constant andis instrument depth, and surface buoyancy flux capture our estimates ofwell, collapsing data points near unity. We find that a newer Langmuir turbulence scaling, based onand, scalesεwell at times but is overall less consistent than. Monin‐Obukhov similarity theory (MOST) relationships from prior studies in a variety of aquatic and atmospheric settings largely agree with our data in conditions where convection and wind‐driven current shear are both significant sources of TKE, but diverge in other regimes.